Paper presented at the 3rd European Forum of Sport Sciences in Higher Education - Bordeaux (France) 15 september 1995.

 

Sports stimulation initiatives for underprivileged youth and immigrant youth in Flanders (Belgium)

 

 

Paul De Knop

Marc Theeboom

Kristine De Martelaer

Linda Van Puymbroeck

 

Human Movement Sciences

Free University of Brussels, Belgium

 

 

 

Abstract

 

Sport can be an important leisure time activity for underprivileged youth, based on a number of social meanings of sports participation (instrumental-functional, expressive, symbolic and social-interactive). This paper discusses the possibilities of sports stimulation initiatives in schools, youth welfare work and sports clubs. It describes a number of existing initiatives sponsored by the Belgian King Baudouin Foundation.

 

 

 

It took a long time before the idea of sports as a leisure respons to underpriviliged youth came to a more structured approach in Belgium. This can be due to the lack of knowledge of pedagogues and welfare workers with regard to the meaning / positive effects of sports. On the other hand, the problem area of underprivileged youth is far away from those who are engaged with the guidance of sports activities. A theoretical basis and initiatives for underprivileged youth, co-ordinated by the King Baudouin Foundation and carried out with the assistance of the Youth Advisory Centre of Sports of the Free University of Brussels, have caused a breakthrough in Belgium.

 

The King Baudouin Foundation (KBS)

The KBS, founded in 1976, has since 1988 a programme which is divided in different themes. The Foundation took the decision to accentuate the target group "youth", for whom they started three kinds of initiatives: active helping citizenship, cultural development and good physical condition. In the programme "youth and sports" the underprivileged youth has a special place.

Different kind of experimental and research programmes were set up. The selection, guidance and evaluation of these initiatives are discussed in a steering committee "youth and sports". The members of this committee come from policy, scientific and practical surroundings of welfare work and sports. Because of the need for a more systematic approach of the theme "Sports as integration for underprivileged youth", a scientific foundation was necessary.

Notwithstanding the young age of the programme "youth and sports" of the KBS, they have already a lot of initiatives on the other hand.

The aim of the Foundation with regard to the programme youth and sport, is to give signals of problems concerning underprivileged youth and sports, to test what is possible to realize and thus stimulates other organizations to continue the project on their own. The working of the Foundation is based on practical suggestions and examples of experiments on the one hand and contacts for further co-operation between several institutions.

This paper gives an overview of the literature on the value of sports and possible structures for participation in sports of underprivileged youth. An enumerative description of existing projects for sports participation of the programme of the King Baudouin Foundation in Belgium will be given.

 

Underprivileged youth

The approach of underprivileged youth in this paper is based on the description used by Walgrave (1992). "Underprivileged" refers to the situation of those youngsters that often live in families with material and relational problems. Their neighbourhood is known as to be on the downgrade, with less comfortable houses of a low price category. Being unsuccessful and being confronted with negative experiences is often evident and confirmed from generation to generation. The social perspective of the parents is poor and thus the expectations from the children are often low.

Also the other terms that are used for underprivileged youth (lower class, fourth world, social depreved,& ) refer to their specific situation and their small chances to integrate in society on a fulfilling way. Due to their marginal situation, stigmatization and exclusion, these youngsters miss valuable social contacts and thus look for compensation in their peer group, what mostly results in delinquent behaviour.

This description also applies to young immigrants. Because of their problematic situation, there are still some other elements that make the situation of these young immigrants more complicated. When during the sixties the Belgian authorities, like several other Western European governments, encouraged the immigration of workers from Mediterranean countries such as Morocco and Turkey, they did not foresee the social problems that would occur during the economic recession that started some 20 years later. Many of the migrant workers and their families which sought prosperity and better living conditions, soon found themselves in conditions that were far more worse than those of the native population. Low education, high unemployment, delinquency, low paid jobs  are a few of the many problems most of these (Islamic) immigrants still face today. Because of these very unfavourable conditions, today most of the second and third generation immigrants are facing many problems. Moreover, most of these youngsters face problems with regard to their cultural identity. They live between two cultures, without considering one or the other as their own. They often do not understand their original culture, since they have never lived in their parents native country. They are also reminded by many that they should never consider themselves as part of the Flemish culture. Their culture as well as their language is a barrier for social integration.

 

 Leisure  and sports participation of underprivileged youth

     As it is for all leisure activities, there are different dimensions in sports participation. Kruissink (1988) describes three leisure dimensions : (1) free of obligations (e.g., going to an amusement park, a disco,& ), (2) average (e.g., cooking, reading, & ), and (3) structured (e.g., sportive, musical engagement in an organization). These dimensions have to do with the grade of organization (and thus obligations) and passive / active activities.

     Because of the diversity of the group "underprivileged youth", it is difficult to make general statements about the degree of participaton of these specific youngsters. Research data are scarce. Most of our knowledge is based on literature and a recent Belgian research project of immigrants concerning possibilities for integration by organized sports (De Knop et al., 1993a).

Sport is one of the most popular leisure activities for youngsters (Kruissink, 1988, Manders & Kropman, 1979, Naeyaert, 1984). There is no difference between the sports participation of Belgian and young immigrants. It is also for immigrants the most prefered leisure time activity. The most popular sports for immigrants are soccer and martial arts. They would like to practise tennis, more martial arts, basketball and swimming (De Knop et al.,1993a).

Although underprivileged youth has a lot of leisure time because of skipping school or unemployment, these youngsters are rarely engaged in organized leisure activities. Teachers and youth welfare workers often have great difficulties in moti­vating underprivileged youth to take part in organized activities. Dealing with rules, standing by agreements and taking responsibility are some of the main problems involved. One of the ways to influence their situation has proven to be through sports participation.

 

The role of sports for underprivileged youth

Since sport appears to be an appropriate way to attract many of underprivileged youth, it is more and more used while working with this group. Many agree that, apart from being a meaningful leisure activity, sport also has an educative character which can be of use to improve the social integration of underprivileged youth (Ruottinen, 1982; Nickolai, 1982; Middleton, 1982, 1984; Adolph-Volpert et al., 1984; Harms, 1984; Meiburg, 1985; Bergmann, 1986; Böck, 1986; Van Ancum et al., 1987; Van Dijck, 1987; Van der Gugten, 1988; Theeboom et al., 1989, 1990; De Knop et al., 1992).

Sport often helps teachers and youth welfare workers to get in contact with this youth. It can improve their relationship with these youngsters, which is necessary in order to start working at their diffi­cult situation. In this way, sport becomes a means of social integration. Sports for underprivileged youth has to be seen as a . means. to integration and certainly not only for the sport itself!

De Knop and Theeboom (1992) identified four social meanings of sports participation. Regular sport has indeed an important role and social function in society, expressed in four meanings as shown in figure 1 : instrumental-functional, expressive, symbolic and social-interactive meaning.

 

Figure 1: Four social meanings of sports participation

 

Instrumental-functional meaning of sport

The two most important functional contributions of sport are socialization and integration. Socialization has to do with a relationship of individuals with the society and its values and norms. Sport can be considered as a way of social control, whereby the efforts will be orientated towards socialization of these youngsters.

Integration means growing up with different entities (cultures) in society as a whole. Sport is an easy activity for integration in contrast with the desintegrating complexity of society. Integration through sports activities can be considered acccording to the level of sport. For top level athletes it means a climbing at the social-economical ladder that causes, together with a growing popularity, a greater social acceptance and appreciation. On the other hand, lower level sport must be seen as a worthwhile and socially accepted leisure activity for underprivileged youth. In contradiction with top level athletes, these youngsters would not get special attention.

 

Expressive meaning of sport

Youngsters are either aware or unaware, looking for expressions of competence. Underprivileged youth has less domains to show competence. During sports participation, aspects like fulfilling a task on his own, experience success,& are important expressions with a general value, especially for underprivileged youth. Besides, sport gives an opportunity to express the need for "excitement" of youngsters. Society does not offer many possibilies for youngsters to unload tension. 

 

Symbolic meaning of sport

Symbols, material (like hair style, clothes, means of transport) or non-material (use of language, attitude, interest,& ) are important to build an own identity so youngsters can distinguish themselves from the others. These and other social basic needs such as status, prestige, appreciation can be realized during sports participation. Sport is a more accessible symbol for underprivileged youth compared to other forms.

 

Social-interactive meaning of sport

The role of sport as a meeting place is one of the most recognizable. Social contact is often one of the most important reasons to participate in sport. Interactions in sport can be translated as sociability, friendship, affiliation. For underprivileged youth, this social-interactive role is important for two reasons : (1) sport offers an interesting meeting place where social interactions are stimulated, (2) the social-interactive role can be used to improve social learning processes in society.

 

Youngsters normally get in contact with organized sports activities through different ways (parents, friends, teachers, community sports services, youth organizations, ...). However, as already described, the stimulation can be different for underprivileged youth. In the next part we will describe what schools, youth welfare work and sports clubs can contribute to the sports participation of underprivileged youth.

 

Schools

Sports stimulation through schools should be considered as a prevention measure. By introducing pupils to a variety of sports, it can encourage them to become involved in organized activities on a regular base, which is otherwise not likely to happen. In schools every child can be reached and thus the participation would not depend on the goodwill of the parents. Especially for immigrant girls, schools are often the only way through which they come in contact with sports. In fact, the presence of underprivileged youth must be seen on three levels : primary and secondary schools with a high concentration of immigrants, technical and vocational education and part time education.

The effect of an intensive school sports programme was tested in two Flemish schools, were a majority of the pupils were immigrants between 12 and 18 (Theeboom et al, 1990, 1992). The programme was organised by the Youth Advisory Centre for Sports (Vrije Universiteit Brussel) and the local school sports federation and was sponsored by the King Baudouin Foundation. Before the beginning of the sports programme, the pupils were asked about their sports participation. Young immigrants appeared to have a limited variation in the number of practised sports compared to their Belgian school mates. Pupils were then offered a variety of different sports. They were also informed about the existing pos­sibi­lities to practise sports on a regular base (addresses of local sports clubs, regular school sports programmes,...).

Results showed that all pupils were very interested in the sports programme. A majority of them indicated they would like to practise these sports on a regular basis and explicitly asked for similar sports pro­grammes in the future. According to the pupils, the school can play an important role in the organization of these programmes. Furthermore, school sports activities helped to diminish the aversion older pupils often have for school, because absence rates, which were usually high among the older pupils, dropped clearly during the time the programme was organized. Results indicated that sport can be a way to improve the rela­tionship between pupils and their teachers, because it creates an opportunity to get to know each other in a more in­formal way. 

The KBS supported a pilot study in a technical and vocational training for 16-18-olds (Musch et al., 1992). The aim of this project was to stimulate social competence through a programme of co-operative physical activities in group with an accent on social interaction. Sports such as basketball offer a lot of possibilities to pursuit the same aim, to succeed a task together, to communicate and take decisions in group. Van Oost (1988) describes social competence as knowing and controlling strategies by which one can have and maintain successful relations with others. These strategies refer to social-cognitive processes as to actions, to be able to detect the rules and norms in certain situations and also to adapt his own behaviour.

By means of video pictures and an adapted questionnaire of Harter (1989) for students and teachers, the social competence was evaluated. Results indicated positive effects on the social effects of the pupils involved (Musch, Mertens, Browaeys, & Laporte, 1992).

KBS is also involved in a part time education in some schools, where the youngsters have the possibility to take a course for sports guidance. This programme is included in the curriculum because those underprivileged youngsters are not easily motivated, while sports belongs to their field of interest.

 

Youth welfare work

A second way to stimulate sports participation for underprivileged youth is through youth welfare work, which is often the only formal institution these youngsters come in contact with during their leisure time.

By order of the King Baudouin Foundation, the Youth Advisory Centre of Sport (Vrije Universiteit Brussel) set up an inventory study to identify sports programmes for underprivileged youth in Flanders (Theeboom et al., 1992). The data were collected through a written questionnaire to all municipal sports and youth services and to special youth welfare work. Results showed that there were only a limited number of specific sports initiatives. Most of the programmes that were organised occur within the youth welfare work. However, these organisations deal with many problems concerning the availability and the use of sports facilities. Constant occupation and high rent make it difficult for organizers, who usually only have limited financial resources, to offer these youth an interesting sports programme. It is therefore necessary to provide equal chances for all to make use of the existing local sports infrastructure. 

Furthermore, within the youth welfare work there appears to be a good knowledge of the problems of the target group, but a lack of "sports competence". It is therefore necessary to give youth leaders basic information concerning the organisation of sports activities (knowledge of different sports games, organizational principles, information of sports structures,...). This kind of training should only be considered as a first step towards the improvement of the sports organizational and technical aspects in working with underprivileged youth.

 

Training courses for persons who are in charge of sports programmes for underprivileged youth

While youth welfare workers should know more about sports activities, sports leaders can learn more about the specific approach of underprivileged youth. The KBS therefore organized training courses for youth welfare workers. During a number of weekends practical sessions were organized about games, rules, organisation, methodology, & in sport.

These weekends were the start of a more structured approach, in which some welfare workers have started to follow an education programme for sports guidance, organized by the Sports Administration (BLOSO) in Flanders. The KBS has also sponsored training courses for pedagogues working with juvenile delinquents who are placed in special institutions.

 

 Sports clubs

One of the advantages of sports participation in sports clubs is the regularity of the activities. When sport becomes a regular activity for underprivileged youth, the possibilities for positive social influence will increase. Furthermore, sports clubs have the sports technical expertise and the necessary infrastructure.

However, not many underprivileged youngsters take part in organized sports activities. Several studies have indicated that this is especially true for young immigrants, where the participation is compared with the native population (Beaujon, 1986; Bock, 1986; Vanreusel et al.,1986; Hoolt, 1987; Dequeecker, 1988). Fifty-four percent of the 12 to 15-year-old immigrants in Belgium compared to 31% of Belgian youngsters of the same age group has never had a membership in a sports club (De Knop et al., 1993a).

Many of the first generation immigrants that live in Flanders, originally came from the countryside and therefore have little experience with leisure organizations (Dequeecker, 1988). Which means that parents will not encourage their children to participate in organized sports activities. Moreover, young immigrant girls are almost excluded from organized sports. They spend distinctly less hours on sports, compared with the autochtonous girls (De Knop et al., 1993a). Already from an early age, they are required to spend most of their free time within their family's household. And even if they have some time off, their sports participation is very restricted because of Islamic rules, that forbid them to become involved in sports activities together with boys.

Experiments have shown that specific sports stimulation programmes for immigrant youngsters in sports clubs often fail (Van Geelen, 1988). Therefore, some believe that sports clubs do not have a role in the sports stimulation of these youngsters, especially because the clubs are not often confronted with these problems (Terp, 1984). However, several others still consider a sports club as an appropriate social structure for the sports stimulation of young immigrants (Koolen, 1985, 1986; Van Dijk, 1987; Van Der Gugten, 1988; Kruissink, 1988). Sports clubs can play an important role in the sports stimulation of immigrant youngsters, if some modifications are taken into account : (a) clubs should take into account the cultural differences that exist between young immigrants and native club members (Abel, 1986), (b) clubs that want to attract immigrant members should have a clear non-discriminant policy, which not only refers to club membership, but also to equality in chances to participate as members of the board (Hoolt, 1987), (c) there should be support and guidance from the local government for the "own" (immigrant) clubs (Hoolt, 1987).

To date, only limited attention is paid by the KBS to support initiatives within the sports clubs. However, the following project can be regarded as an example of a sports stimulation inititiative within a sports club.

 

Fan Coaching

The first project was launched in co-operation with Royal Antwerp Football (soccer) Club. A meeting-place was provided on the territory of the club, where young (underprivileged) fans could meet the players of the club. Because of this kind of recognition and the attempt to create ties between the underprivileged youth and the club, they tried to take away the young fans from the hard core of the soccer hooligans. Moreover, working this way, the energy of the youngsters could be canalised in work- and leisure activities. After a number of succesful years with the support of the KBS, the ministry of Internal Affears has enclosed the Fan Coaching projects as a part of their general policy, because of the low security in some major urban areas.

Other similar fan coaching initiatives have started with more first division soccer teams.

 

Other KBS - initiatives

Sports infrastructure

After the realisation in 1987 of a publication on the adaptation of infrastructure and sports equipment to be used when working with underprivileged youth, the Foundation has supported several local initiatives through two campaigns. Each youth club, youth organization, youth service or community work could make an application for the realization of "light sports infrastructure" or acquisition of sports equipment. When a project complied with the criteria, it received financial support (maximum US $ 3,000). The criteria for infrastructure and equipment were : (a) to be of a good quality, simple and light, (b) with the intention of activities for underprivileged youth and an emphasis on continuation, (c) related to a project that aims personal development and social integration, (d) a co-ordination or a consultation with those concerned, (e) a guiding programme provided by good monitors. After a positive evaluation of these campaigns, a third campaign will be launched by the end of 1994.

Two staff members of the KBS evaluated and guided those projects that were accepted and thus financed. They gave advise for the purchasing of sports material and supported the practical realisation of the projects. Each project was visited twice, once before the start and once during the project. An observational and descriptive evaluation was made. This project still continues under the name "local sports initiatives" and everyone can make an application for financial support, not only for infrastructure or sports material but also for the activities themselves.

 

Outward Bound School (OBS)

OBS is based on physical effort in nature. The activities consist of a wander of several days, climbing, exploring caves, make bivouac, & . These activities create ideal situations for the youngsters to learn more about themselves and to create a good team spirit. Such a programme is a possible way to stimulate social integration for underprivileged youth. With co-operation of different Flemish youth organizations, a training was organized for mixed groups of 12 youngsters. Each training lasted for several days and was split up into a period of some months. The individual results were evaluated during the training by a guiding commitee with the support of the Foundation. OBS is relative expensive and intensive, thus not always easy to realize. Because of these practical reasons, some welfare workers have followed a course, in order to be able to organize activities with the same methodology of OBS on their own. 

 

Street soccer

This is an initiative in co-operation with the the Belgian Football (soccer) Federation (KBVB) and has a tripled aim: offer an equal chance for every youngster to play soccer (while not being affiliated to a club), to stimulate the provison of better sports accommodation within easy reach and to enable good teamwork with different municipal services and youth associations. Street soccer is promoted by the Institution of Sports Management (ISB) and the Association Flemish Youth Services and Consultants (VVJ).

 

Immigrant girls

A study on sports participation of immigrant girls was sponsored by the KBS. Its aim was to give advice to sports policy makers what actions need to be taken to promote sport succesfully to this target group. Sports clubs, federations, schools, specific immigrant organizations, sports services as well as the girls themselves were asked about their views (De Knop et al., 1993b).

 

Conclusion and discussion

Different studies and experiments show the importance of sports participation for underprivileged youngsters. It offers possibilities to improve their problematic situation. Not only because of the intrinsic values of sport itself (effects on health, character building, etc.), but especially because sport offers an easy way for youth workers, teachers and others to get in contact with these youth. These contacts which are otherwise very difficult to make, are an important step towards an improvement of their situation.

Because of the low participation level in organised sports of underprivileged youngsters (girls in particular), an active policy towards sports stimulation for this group is necessary. Several institutions can play a role in this kind of stimulation. All possible efforts can be useful, which means that schools, youth welfare work and sports clubs should be involved in this kind of sports stimulation. For each separate institution can only have a limited impact. Schools have the advantage that they can reach all pupils (especially the youngest). However, their influence during after school hours is restricted. Youth welfare work often has a good insight in the specific problems of the youngsters and their families. However, limited resources make it hard for them to work on a permanent base. Sports clubs, which have the sports technical knowledge and the appropriate infrastructure, often have difficulties in dealing with the youngsters.

The KBS strives for a gaining independence of the different projects, so the responsibility can be reserved for the local sports administration.

The local sports administration has different ways to participate in a sports incentives policy :

(1) to co-ordinate all initiatives of the different structures, (2) in planning and organizing specific courses for underprivileged youth, to become more instructed and involved in the guidance of youngsters in sport and / or the policy of a sports club, (3) to set up or participate in a campaign for stimulation of (organized) sports for underprivileged youth, especially for the girls, (4) by organizing sports initiation sessions and competitions, (5) make infrastructure available and provide adequate sports equipment.

There are a number of critical points to assure a successful sports programme for underprivileged youth are : (1) this programme must be adapted to their specific situation, in other words, they must take advantage, on the one hand, of the needs of the youngsters and, on the other hand, of the link with existing social institutions, (2) the offer of sport possibilities has to be concrete and realistic, (3) it has to follow up the engagement of new participants, (4) the youth welfare workers have enough knowledge about sports, while those who are in charge of sports guidance need to have insight in the specific approach of underprivileged youth, (5) there must be a structural co-operation between the organizations of the different initiatives. Under these conditions, sport will be more than just fun, for it can truly become a means of social integration.

 

Looking for an appropriate methodology

 

The literature provides us primarily with data about the methodology and didactic theory of dealing with socially fragile young people in general (including Fransen, 1982; Landelijke Contactraad [Rural Contact Board], 1987; Quensel, 1982).  Little is known about specifically approaching these young people through sports.  Yet we   believe that the general methodological and didactic rules also apply in this connection.  After all, alongside other activities, sports is one way of working with this  group.

 

Employing a set of eight principles, Quensel (1982) tries to describe an alternative pedagogy that can be used with such young people.  The author also points out how  these principles can be translated into the practice of 'sports working' with this group  of young people.  Below, the eight principles are given in brief:

 

1. Develop the positive sides, skills and contacts, put the adolescent in situations where he already knows something, without thereby always wanting to improve his bad characteristics.

 

2. Above all, work practically, without too much discussion.

 

3. Attempt to normalise the relation of the adolescent with the counsellor, without  allowing this latter to act as an ideal, omniscient role model.

 

4. Approach the adolescent initially in groups, something which is particularly characteristic of this age (peer group orientation), instead of wanting to directly address the problems on an individual basis

 

5. Emphasise the value and significance of pleasure and fun in playing sports, without constantly proceeding only from concepts like work, order and a sense of duty

 

6. Give the possibility of having success experiences in order to be able then to build  further on these, which offer a better way of learning to deal with problems, instead of always only asking about these problems

 

7. Put him in situations where he can by himself forge practical plans, organise, determine rules which must be accepted and for which he must be accountable, instead of treating him only as an object

 

8. Work with all adolescents, including the weakest among them, the ones who are constantly being forgotten, instead of always addressing yourself to the 'stars'

 

Then, however, the author also offers a number of obstacles, which explain why such a  pedagogical approach is hard to implement in practice. These obstacles are:

 

1. We often regard these young people as disturbed, asocial and criminal, and then emphasise primarily their negativ sides, because they sometimes actually do threaten and disturb us.

 

2. As counsellors, we constantly regard ourselves as well educated, as embodying the standard which must be emulated by others as well, precisely because that what we were trained for.

 

3. As counsellors, we are sometimes inclined to want to instruct these adolescents in the same (school-like) manner as other young people, because 'they too should learn something'.

 

4. As counsellors, we see adolescents through a pair of glasses which emphasise only  their unusual, neurotic or neglected sides, by contrast suppressing other (positive)  characteristics, so that the only thing one can do is 'treat' them.

 

5. As sportspersons or committed laymen, we employ our standards as if they were self evident, we evade the difficulties or forget them entirely, because we proceed from the assumption that, at bottom, these young people are just like ourselves.

 

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Footnote

 

¹ Flanders is the Dutch speaking northern community of the federal state of Belgium. In 1990, the Flemish population consisted of approximately 5.7 million people, which accounts for more than 59% of the total Belgian population (Nationaal Instituut voor Statistiek, 1991).